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NNY Agricultural Development Program Small Grants Project Report (2007)

Developing New Cropping System Options for Organic Grain Production in Northern New York

Project Leader
Michael H. Davis, Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University

Collaborators
Jerry Cherney, Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell Universit
Anita Deming, Cornell Cooperative Extension of Essex County

Background
Organic grain production is one strategy that Northern New York farmers could use to diversify their operations and increase profitability. Fifteen to twenty percent annual increases in the organic food market coupled with the premium prices paid for certified organic grains have prompted many farmers to explore the organic option, and the amount of NNY acreage committed to organic field crop production has increased significantly in recent years.

Cropping system work in the organic rotations at the Cornell E.V. Baker Research Farm has primarily focused on the production of spring and winter wheat, grain-type soybeans, sweet corn, and alfalfa/grass hay. Solid regional markets for certified organic wheat and soybeans have helped to encourage local farmers to experiment with organic cropping systems, and most of the certified organic grain production in the area thus far has focused on these two crops. The challenge now is to find additional crop options that can be effectively and profitably inserted into the rotations. Sunflowers, flax, specialty grain corn, and dry beans have been suggested by organic farmers or marketers as possible options.

Objectives

(1) To develop cropping system strategies to insert sunflowers, organic flax, and dry beans into the organic rotations at the Cornell E.V. Baker Research Farm.

(2) To acquire and test the agronomic performance of available sunflower, flax, and dry bean varieties in replicated, organically managed trials.

Baker Farm Organic Rotations:
A six acre field at the Baker Research Farm in Willsboro has been certified organic since 1993. The six acres were divided into ten equal blocks that have been allocated to two five-year rotations (a ‘Wheat-Alfalfa/timothy’ rotation and a ‘New Crop’ rotation). The New Crop rotation initially involved three years of alfalfa/timothy sod, followed by one year of food-grade soybeans, and one year of sweet corn. Two to three years of alfalfa/timothy sod has formed the heart of all our organic rotations. The perennial sod serves to recharge soil health as it provides an extended period without tillage, fibrous grass roots contribute significant organic matter to the soil system, and alfalfa root nodules fix nitrogen. Weed seed banks are also reduced when the sod is mowed or hayed at regular intervals.In an effort to diversify the cropping and marketing options in the New Crop rotation, food-grade soybeans were replaced with dry beans, sunflowers replaced sweet corn, and flax followed the sunflowers (essentially taking the place of one year of alfalfa/timothy sod). Inserting sunflowers (Asteraceae family) and flax (Linaceae family) into the rotation adds two new plant families to the system and could function to reduce the incidence of pathogen and pest problems. The advantage to adding a third annual grain crop to the rotation is that it could improve economic returns over a five year period. The downside of having three annual crops and only two years of alfalfa/timothy sod, is that the soil system has less time to recharge and soil health could potentially be compromised.

Organic Flax Trials
Flax trials were conducted on New Crop rotation blocks 12-O-6 in 2006, and 12-O-9 in 2007. Fields had a Rhinebeck clay loam soil with subsurface drainage.

Experimental Designs

2006: Untreated seed for five flax varieties was obtained from the Flax Institute at North Dakota State University. The variety trial employed a randomized complete block design with six replications. Plots were 10’ wide, 20’ long, and planted at a 7” row spacing. Target seeding depth was 1”, and the seeding rate was 56 lbs/acre (1 bu/acre). Three tons per acre composted chicken manure and 500 lbs/acre granulated organic fertilizer (North Country Organics 5-3-4) were applied to the field in 2005. No additional fertilizer was applied. The 2006 trial was planted May 8 and harvested October 10.

2007: Six flax varieties were included in the 2007 trial, which followed a plowed down alfalfa/timothy sod in the rotation. Additionally, a topdress fertilizer treatment was incorporated into the study. Fertilized plots received a 500 lb/acre broadcast application of OMRI approved Northcountry Organics 5-3-4 Pro Gro granulated fertilizer ten days after crop emergence. A split plot experimental design with four replications was used with the topdress application as the whole plot treatment, and variety as the split plot treatment. Plot size, seeding rate, row spacing, and target planting depth were the same as in 2006. The 2007 trial was seeded May 25 and harvested October 5.

Weed Control
Flax does not compete well for either above or below ground resources, so it is essential to minimize weed pressure. As flax is seeded at a narrow (7”) row spacing, few post emergent cultivation options are available, and our strategy was to control the weeds as much as possible prior to seeding the crop. In both trials a late summer fallow period was imposed the year prior to trial establishment. Block 12-O-6 was fallowed following the failed 2005 sweet corn crop; this appeared to greatly reduce annual and perennial weed pressure ahead of the 2006 flax crop. Similarly, in preparation for the 2007 trial, rotation block 12-O-9 was plowed in August 2006 and fallowed for the remainder of the growing season to kill the alfalfa/timothy sod, any perennial weeds that had become established in the sod, and any annuals that may have germinated after the field was plowed.

In addition to the late season fallow periods, an early season stale seedbed strategy was employed to take out the first flush of spring annual weeds prior to establishing the trials in May. With a stale seedbed strategy the field is disced and dragged as soon as the field can be worked

in the spring to encourage the germination of spring annual weed seeds. Germinated weeds are then killed by cultivation just prior to seeding the flax. No weed control measures were taken after planting, and weed control in the plots was excellent in both years.

It was interesting to note that in the 2007 trial where there were some “planter skips” at the ends of some of the plots, clusters of annual weeds became established. These weed clusters highlighted the importance of having a dense, solid crop stand to suppress weed growth during the season, even when working with a fairly non competitive crop like flax.

Results and Discussion

Entries:
The 2006 flax trial included four brown seeded varieties and one yellow seeded (“golden”) variety (Table 2). A second golden flax variety, Carter was also included in the 2007 trial. While yellow and brown seeded varieties do not differ in their composition, the yellow color is considered more desirable for human consumption.

Flax Yields:
2006 mean yields ranged from 636 lbs/acre for Pembina to 738 lbs/acre for Omega, but yield differences were not statistically significant (Table 1). In 2007, the mean yield for Pembina was significantly lower than all other entries except Carter (Table 1). None of the other varieties differed significantly in yield in 2007.

2007 yields were markedly higher than 2006 yields (Table 1). Higher yields in 2007 may have resulted from greater soil fertility associated with the plowed down alfalfa/timothy sod that preceded 2007 trial, and/or more favorable growing conditions. The months of May and June were exceptionally wet in 2006 (Table 3), and waterlogged clay soils during the first part of the growing season may have resulted in reduced yields.

2006 yields differed significantly with replication block (Figure 1). Yields were significantly higher in replication blocks 1-3 than in blocks 4-6. Blocks 4-6 were located in a lower and wetter section of the field. Lower production in blocks 4-6 is consistent with the idea that wet soils reduced flax yields.

The topdress fertilizer treatment did not effect yields in 2007, indicating that the plowed down alfalfa/timothy sod provided sufficient fertility for the crop.

Variety Heights:
Mean plant heights were greater in 2007 than in 2006 (Table 2). Taller plants in the 2007 trial accompanied higher yields and are indicative of more favorable growing conditions. Mean plant height differed with variety in both 2006 and 2007. Nekoma and Pembina were consistently among the tallest entries, while York was one of the shortest varieties in both years.

In 2007, the topdress fertilizer treatment significantly increased plant height (Figure 2), indicating that the organic fertilizer application influenced plant growth, even if it didn’t impact yields.

Summary
Seed flax varieties bred for upper Midwest growing conditions performed well in northern New York trials in 2006 and 2007. Yields were comparable to those reported for identical entries in NDSU trials (www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/willisto/), indicating that these varieties are suitable for production in the northeast. Most varieties did not differ significantly in yield. Pembina was the exception as it yielded significantly less than all the other entries except Carter in 2007, and had the lowest mean yield in the 2006 trial.

Flax fit nicely into established organic grain rotations at the Cornell Baker Research Farm. A late summer fallow period the year prior to planting, coupled with an early season stale seedbed provided good weed control in both years. No disease, insect or lodging problems were observed in either year.

Flax growth and yield were influenced by weather conditions and rotation sequence. Yields were markedly lower in the 2006 trial which experienced an exceptionally wet May and June, and followed sweet corn in the rotation. In contrast, the 2007 trial followed a plowed down alfalfa/timothy sod and received timely rains. We hypothesized that the heavy rains in 2006 flushed much of the early season available nitrogen out of the soil, so an organic fertilizer topdress treatment was incorporated into the 2007 trial. While the fertilizer application significantly increased plant heights, it did not influence yield as the decomposing alfalfa/timothy sod provided sufficient fertility for the crop.

Table 1. Mean yields for flax varieties in 2006 and 2007.

VARIETY 2006 MEAN YIELDS (lbs/acre) 2007 MEAN YIELDS (lbs/acre)

Rahab94 654 a 1200 a
York 656 a 1195 a
Omega 739 a 1187 a
Nekoma 676 a 1100 a
Carter – 1094 ab
Pembina 636 a 896 b
…………………………LSD 0.05 = 134 LSD 0.05 = 204

Table 2. Seed color and mean plant heights for flax varieties in the 2006 and 2007 trials.

VARIETY SEED COLOR 2006 – Mean Plant Heights(cm) – 2007

Nekoma Brown 52.0 ab 73.4 a
Pembina Brown 52.0 ab 72.0 a
Rahab94 Brown 50.2 b 66.1 b
Carter Yellow – 64.6 b
York Brown 48.0 b 63.8 b
Omega Yellow 54.8 a 59.0 c
…………………………………………… LSD 0.05 = 4.4 LSD 0.05 = 3.3

Table 3. Monthly Rainfall Totals on the Cornell Baker Farm (inches)

Year May June July August
2006 4.08 4.81 2.73 1.83
2007 1.53 1.81 4.72 0.34

Organic Dry Bean Production
Dry beans replaced food-grade soybeans in the organic ‘New Crop’ rotation at the Cornell University Willsboro Research Farm in 2006 and 2007. Dry bean trials were conducted on certified organic fields with a Rhinebeck clay loam soil and subsurface tile drainage. The 2006 trial followed a plowed down alfalfa/timothy sod in the rotation and was located on block 12-O- 8. The 2007 trial was conducted on block 12-O-7 and followed sunflowers in the rotation.

Trial Establishment
Certified organic seed of four dry bean varieties (Table 4) was obtained from High Mowing Seed Company in Vermont. A randomized complete block trial was designed with six replications in 2006 and four replications in 2007. Trial plots were 10’ wide and 20’ long, and consisted of four rows with a 30” row spacing between the rows. Target planting depth was 1” and all seed was inoculated with the appropriate Rhizobium sp. prior to planting. The 2006 trial was planted on June 16 (seeding was delayed by exceptionally wet weather) and harvested by hand on November 1, 3 and 6. The 2007 trial was planted May 30 and hand harvested October 22.

Weed Control
The weed control strategy for dry beans included both pre-plant and post-emergent cultivation techniques. We always work to control the weeds as much as possible before seeding the crop using late season fallow periods and/or early season stale seedbeds. With dry beans planted at a 30” row spacing, post-emergent blind cultivations with a rotary hoe and between row cultivations with a variety of sweeps can also be employed.

In preparation for the 2006 trial, block 12-O-8 was plowed in August 2005 and fallowed the remainder of the growing season to kill the sod and reduce perennial and annual weed populations. Additionally, a stale seed bed strategy was used to take out two flushes of annual weeds in the spring. In a normal spring the beans would have been planted by mid May, and there wouldn’t have been enough time to germinate and cultivate a second flush of weeds, but the delayed planting in 2006 allowed for an additional stale period prior to seeding. Wet weather continued after planting and there were no opportunities to do any blind cultivating with a rotary hoe. The plots were cultivated using sweeps between the rows on July 6, 2006. Weed control in the plots was generally good, primarily due to the effectiveness of the late season fallow period and stale seedbed.

The 2007 trial followed sunflowers in the rotation, so a late season fallow period was not an option. Block 12-O-7 was plowed in November following the sunflower harvest. The field was then disced and dragged in late April 2007 to create a stale seedbed, which was dragged again just prior to seeding the trial on May 30. Plots were cultivated with a rotary hoe (two passes in opposite directions) when the plants were about 4” tall and had their first set of true leaves. This blind cultivation effectively controlled germinating seedlings within and between the dry bean rows. An additional between row cultivation with sweeps was conducted in mid summer.

Results and Discussion
Deer browsing damage was observed in the dry bean plots in both 2006 and 2007. Plot damage in 2006 was relatively light and the impact of the deer browsing on bean yields was difficult to assess. In 2007 deer browsing damage was extensive and severe: many plots were completely destroyed, and the plots that were harvestable had markedly reduced yields (Table 4). Three strands of electrified tape surrounded the entire trial in both seasons, but clearly failed to deter the deer in 2007.

Yields varied significantly between the entries in 2006 with Black Turtle averaging over twice the yield of any other variety (Table 4). While we didn’t have enough plot samples to run statistical tests on yields in 2007, black turtle yields were again much greater than any of the other varieties.

All four varieties set some pods very close to the ground, making it impossible to mechanically combine the plots without leaving significant numbers of pods in the field. Our inability to mechanically harvest any of the dry bean varieties suggests that they may not be suited to larger scale plantings. Black Turtle has the most potential for mechanical harvesting as it was taller than the other varieties and fewer pods would be missed by a combine.

Table 4. Mean dry bean variety yields for 2006 and 2007, and mean variety heights in 2007.
Source Variety 2006 Mean Yields (lbs/acre) 2007 2007 Mean Plant Heights (cm)
High Mowing Seeds Black Turtle 2113.5 1019.4 31
High Mowing Seeds Soldier 953.4 327.9 27
High Mowing Seeds Maine Yellow Eye 685.7 327.9 23
High Mowing Seeds Jacobs Cattle 784.3 287.4 24
Trial Mean 1134.2 539.9 26.6
LSD(0.05) 149.6

Organic Sunflower Production

Fertility
Sunflowers replaced sweet corn in the organic ‘New Crop’ rotation in 2006 and 2007. Since sunflowers, like sweet corn, are considered fairly heavy feeders, our fertilizer program included both compost and a granular organic fertilizer blend. Three tons/acre composted chicken manure (“Giroux Doo” with an NPK of 2-2-1.5) was broadcast onto the field and incorporated with a disc prior to fitting the field for planting. An additional 200 lbs/acre Northcountry Organics 5-3- 4 Pro Gro granular fertilizer was broadcast applied to the plots thirty to forty days after planting.

Trial Establishment
Untreated seed of one edible seed variety (Mammoth) and one oil seed variety (Black Oil) was obtained from Albert Lea Seedhouse in Minnesota. Two hybrid oil seed varieties, 6949 and Defender HO were contributed by Seeds 2000 (Minnesota organization). A randomized complete block test design with four replications was employed. Plots were 10’ wide, 20’ long, and consisted of 4 rows with 30” between row spacings. Sunflowers were planted with a two row cone planter (two passes per plot) on May 31 in 2006 and May 30 in 2007. Final plot evaluations and harvest data were taken on November 6, 2006 and October 22, 2007.

Weed Control
The weed control game plan for the sunflowers included spring stale seedbeds and between row cultivations with sweeps. In 2006, extensive rains after planting prevented timely cultivations of germinating weeds and the plots were not cultivated with sweeps until 40 days after planting; some between row weeds were set back by this cultivation, but significant weed populations persisted, especially within the row. The 2007 trial received two between row cultivations with sweeps before the crop became too tall to clear with our Allis Chalmers G cultivating tractor.

We did not attempt any blind post-emergent cultivations with the sunflowers. It would be interesting to experiment with either a rotary hoe or a spring tine weeder harrow, to see if they could effectively reduce within row weed populations without damaging the sunflower seedlings. In plots with good crop stands, the sunflowers competed well with the within row weeds that managed to persist.

Results and Discussion
In both years, all four varieties grew well in plots that had good stand establishment. Mammoth was almost twice as tall as the three oil seed varieties (Table 5). Selected heads were hand harvested in the fall, but extensive bird damage to the heads made it impossible to collect meaningful yield data from either test. If sunflower trials are to be conducted in the future, it will be essential to protect the plots with bird netting. The sunflowers appeared to mature slowly and many heads started to mold and rot before they had dried enough to combine. It is possible that these varieties are either too late maturing for the Northern New York growing season, or they are not well adapted to the climate conditions.

Other sunflower growers in NNY report reduced bird damage with late planted sunflowers (planted at the end of June), claiming that the seeds mature after many of the birds have already migrated south for the winter. A late planting strategy may have some merit for larger scale (multi-acre) plantings, especially given the extended growing seasons we’ve experienced the past two years. In our relatively small (quarter acre) test plots, however, I would expect the bird pressure to remain high well into the fall.

Table 5. Seed type and mean variety heights for the 2006 and 2007 sunflower variety trials.

Source Variety Seed Type 2006 – Mean Heights (cm) – 2007
Albert Lea Seeds Mammoth Edible 189.6 274.0
Albert Lea Seeds Black Oil Oil Seed 156.9 145.8
Seeds 2000 6946 (hybrid) Oil Seed 166.1 166.3
Seeds 2000 Defender HO (hybrid) Oil Seed 150.6 174.0
Trial Means: 189.6 190.0

Outreach
Tabulated trial results will be posted on the Northern New York Agricultural Development Program website www.nnyagdev.org, and included in regional extension publications and meetings. A workshop on the organic flax production was presented at the NOFA-NY winter conference in Syracuse, NY, January 27, 2007.

Acknowledgments:
Organic cropping systems research was funded by a grant from the Northern New York Agricultural Development Program.

For More Information:
Michael H. Davis
Cornell E.V. Baker Willsboro Research Farm
48 Sayward Lane, Willsboro, NY 12996
518-963-7492, mhd11@cornell.edu

Northern NY Agricultural Development Program Project Report, 2006

Project Leader
Michael H. Davis (mhd11@cornell.edu)
Research Associate, Crop and Soil Sciences
Cornell University E.V. Baker Research Farm

Collaborators
Jerry Cherney (jhc5@cornell.edu), Forage Specialist, Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University
Anita Deming (ald6@cornell.edu), Extension Director, Cornell Cooperative Extension of Essex County

Background:
Organic grain production is one strategy that Northern New York farmers could use to diversify their operations and increase profitability. Fifteen to twenty percent annual increases in the organic food market coupled with the premium prices paid for certified organic grains have prompted many farmers to explore the organic option, and the amount of NNY acreage. Committed to organic field crop production has increased significantly in recent years.

Cropping system work in the organic rotations at the Cornell E.V. Baker Research Farm has primarily focused on the production of spring and winter wheat, grain-type soybeans, sweet corn, and alfalfa/grass hay. Solid regional markets for certified organic wheat and soybeans have helped to encourage local farmers to experiment with organic cropping systems, and most of the certified organic grain production in the area thus far has focused on these two crops. The challenge now is to find additional crop options that can be effectively and profitably inserted into the rotations. Sunflowers, flax, specialty grain corn, and dry (Adzuki) beans have been suggested by organic farmers or marketers as possible options.

Objectives

(1) To develop cropping system strategies to insert sunflowers, organic flax, and dry beans into the organic rotations at the Cornell E.V. Baker Research Farm.

(2) To acquire and test the agronomic performance of available sunflower, flax, and dry bean varieties in replicated, organically managed trials.

Baker Farm Organic Rotations
A six-acre field at the Baker Research Farm in Willsboro has been certified organic since 1993. The six acres were divided into ten equal blocks that have been allocated to two five-year rotations (a Wheat rotation and a New Crop rotation). The New Crop rotation initially involved three years of alfalfa/timothy sod, followed by one year of food-grade soybeans, and one year of sweet corn.

Two to three years of alfalfa/timothy sod forms the heart of all our organic rotations. The perennial sod serves to recharge soil health as it provides an extended period without tillage, fibrous grass roots contribute significant organic matter to the soil system, and alfalfa roots fix nitrogen. Weed seed banks are also reduced when the sod is mowed or hayed at regular intervals.

In an effort to diversify the cropping and marketing options in the New Crop rotation, food-grade soybeans were replaced with dry beans, sunflowers replaced sweet corn, and flax followed the sunflowers (essentially taking the place of one year of alfalfa/timothy sod).

Inserting sunflowers (Asteraceae family) and flax (Linaceae family) into the rotation adds two new plant families to the system and could function to reduce the incidence of pathogen and pest problems. The advantage to adding a third annual grain crop to the rotation is that it could improve economic returns over a five-year period. The downside of having three annual crops and only two years of alfalfa/timothy sod is that the soil system has less time to recharge and soil health could potentially be compromised.

Organic Flax Production
Fertility:
Flax was grown in the New Crop rotation block 12-O-6 on Rhinebeck clay loam soil in 2006. In 2005, this block received 3 tons/acre composted chicken manure (‘Giroux Doo’ with NPK of 2-2-1.5) and 500 lbs/acre Northcountry Organics 5-3-4 Pro Gro granulated fertilizer in preparation for sweet corn. Wet weather in 2005 resulted in a failed sweet corn crop that was plowed under in July. Since Flax is not a heavy feeder, no additional fertilizer was added to the block prior to the 2006 flax seeding. Flax is known to be sensitive to zinc deficiency and in future years soils will be tested for zinc and fertilized accordingly.

Weed Control
Flax does not compete well for either above or below ground resources, so it is essential to minimize weed pressure. Block 12-O-6 was fallowed following the failed 2005 sweet corn crop and this appeared to greatly reduce annual and perennial weed pressure ahead of the 2006 flax crop. A stale seed bed approach was also used in the spring to take out the first flush of annual weeds prior to planting the flax trial on May 8, 2006. No weed control measures were taken after planting, and weed control in the plots was excellent.

Trial Establishment
Untreated seed for five flax varieties were obtained from Albert Lea Seedhouse in Minnesota, and the Flax Institute at North Dakota State University. The variety trial employed a randomized complete block experimental design with six replications. Plots were 10’ wide and 30’ long and planted at a 7” row spacing with a 3 point hitch mounted 5’ wide grain drill (equipped with press wheels). Flax was seeded at 56 lbs/acre rate, which is slightly higher than the 35-50 lb/acre rate that is typically recommended for treated seed. Target seeding depth was 1” (0.5”- 1.5”). As flax seeds are relatively small and seedlings have difficulty pushing through soil crusts, it is important not to plant too deep. Plots were seeded on May 8, 2006 and harvested on October 9, 2006.

Results and Discussion
The flax trial included four brown seeded varieties and one yellow seeded (“golden”) variety (Table 1). While yellow and brown seeded varieties do not differ in their composition, the yellow color is considered more desirable for use in human consumption.

The tallest variety, Omega, differed significantly in height from the shortest variety, York; none of the other varieties differed significantly in height. No lodging problems were observed in the trial. No statistically significant differences in yield were found among the varieties. Yields ranged from 636 lbs/acre to 738 lbs/acre with a trial mean of 672.3 lbs/acre. These yields are consistent with yields reported for the same varieties in conventionally managed trials at NDSU’s Williston Research Station, indicating that these flax varieties may be well suited for Northern New York growing conditions, and that they can perform well in an organically managed cropping system.

Two or more additional years of data are needed to further refine organic flax production strategies, and to confidently gauge the potential of these flax varieties for use in organic production systems in Northern New York.

Table 1. 2006 Organic Flax Variety Trial
Source	Hybrid/Variety Name	Seed Color	Yield	Plant height
			lb/a	cm
		Trial Mean	672.3	51.4
		LSD	134	4.4
		LSD P >	0.05	0.05
		CV	16.6	6.5
		F Test	0.5603	.0264
NDSU	Nekoma	Brown	676.3	52
Albert Lea Seeds	Omega	Golden	738.8	54
NDSU	Pembina	Brown	636.3	52
NDSU	Rahab 94	Brown	654.4	50
NDSU	York	Brown	655.8	48

Organic Dry Bean Production

Fertility:
Dry beans replaced food-grade soybeans in the rotation in 2006 and were grown in Block 12-0-8 on a Rhinebeck clay loam soil with tile drainage. Dry beans followed a plowed down legume/grass sod, and since beans fix their own nitrogen, no additional fertilizer was added to the field.

Trial Establishment:
Certified organic seed of four dry bean varieties was obtained from High Mowing Seed Company in Vermont. A randomized complete block trial with six replications was designed. Trial plots were 10’ wide by 20’ long and consisted of four rows with a 30” spacing between the rows. Our target planting date was mid-May, but unusually wet weather delayed planting until June 16, 2006. Target planting depth was 1” and all seed was inoculated with the appropriate Rhizobium sp. prior to seeding. The trial was harvested by hand on November 1, 3, and 6, 2006.

Weed Control:
Block 12-0-8 was plowed in August 2005 and fallowed the remainder of the growing season to kill the sod and reduce perennial and annual weed populations. Additionally, a stale seed bed strategy was used to take out two flushes of annual weeds in the spring. In a normal spring the beans would have been planted by mid May, and there wouldn’t have been enough time to germinate and cultivate a second flush of weeds, but the delayed planting in 2006 allowed for an additional stale period prior to seeding. Wet weather continued after planting and there were no opportunities to do any blind cultivating with a rotary hoe. The plots were cultivated using sweeps between the rows on July 6, 2006. Weed control in the plots was generally good, primarily due to the effectiveness of the late season fallow period and stale seedbed.

Results and Discussion:
While the entire dry bean trial was surrounded by three strands of electrified tape, deer browsing damage was noted in the plots. It is difficult to assess the impact of the browsing damage on yields. Most of the browsing occurred on the leaves and the deer appeared to browse the four varieties indiscriminately. All four varieties appeared to set a large number of pods per plant, but final yields varied significantly between the entries with Black Turtle averaging over twice the yield of any other variety (Table 2).

All four varieties set some pods very close to the ground, making it impossible to mechanically combine the plots without leaving significant numbers of pods in the field. Our inability to mechanically harvest any of the dry bean varieties suggests that they may not be suited to larger scale plantings. In future dry bean trials efforts will be made to locate varieties that don’t set many pods close to the ground.

Table 2. 2006 Organic Dry Bean Variety Trial
Source	Hybrid/Variety Name	Seed Color	Yield	Moisture
			lb/a	%
		Trial Mean	1134.2	9.6
		LSD	149.6
		LSD P>	0.05
		CV	8.7	6.3
		F Test	0.0001	0.1621
High Mowing Seeds	Black Turtle		2113.5
High Mowing Seeds	Soldier		953.4
High Mowing Seeds	Maine Yellow Eye		685.7
High Mowing Seeds	Jacobs Cattle		784.3

Organic Sunflower Production

Fertility:
Sunflowers replaced sweet corn in the New Crop rotation, and were grown in a block (12-0-7) that had produced food-grade soybeans in 2005. Three tons/acre composted chicken manure (“Giroux Doo” with an NPK of 2-2-1.5) was broadcast onto the field and then disced in prior to fitting the field for planting. Since sunflowers are considered fairly heavy feeders, and there was concern that the heavy rains in May and June had flushed much of the available nitrogen out of the soil, the plots were topdressed with 200 lbs/acre 5-3-4 Pro Gro granular fertilizer from Northcountry Organics on July 10, 2006 (40 days after planting).

Weed Control:
Weed control in the preceding food-grade soybean crop was poor due to a very wet spring and early summer in 2005. Several annual grasses and dicotyledonous weeds went to seed, and the annual weed pressure in block 12-0-7 was expected to be high in 2006. Block 12-0-7 was mowed and then plowed in October 2005 following the soybean harvest. The field was worked as early as possible in spring 2006 to stale seedbed the plots and eliminate a flush of annual spring weeds prior to planting. May 15 was the target planting date, but frequent rains delayed planting until May 31. Continued wet weather after planting inhibited timely cultivation of germinating weeds; we were not able to cultivate the plots until July 10 (40 days after planting) when we used sweeps in an effort to set back weeds growing between the rows. In plots with good plant populations, the sunflowers competed well with the weeds. Plots located in the wetter sections of block 12-0-7 had poor sunflower stand establishment and serious weed problems

Trial Establishment:
Untreated seed of one edible seed variety (Mammoth) and one oil seed variety (Black Oil) was obtained from Albert Lea Seedhouse in Minnesota. Two hybrid oil seed varieties, 6949 and Defender HO were contributed by Seeds 2000 (Minnesota organization). A test was established with 15 replications. Many of the replications located in the wetter areas of block 12-0-7 had poor stand establishment; the trial was eventually reduced to four complete replications. Plots were 10’ wide, 20’ long, and consisted of 4 rows with 30” between row spacings. Sunflowers were planted with a two row cone planter (two passes per plot) on May 31. Final plot evaluations and harvest data were taken on November 6.

Results and Discussion:
All four varieties grew well in plots that had good stand establishment. Mammoth was almost twice as tall as the three oil seed varieties (Table 3). Selected heads were hand harvested from plots in replications one through four in November, but extensive bird damage to the heads made it impossible to collect meaningful yield data. The sunflowers matured slowly in the fall and in many plots the heads started to mold and rot before they had dried enough to combine. The apparent slow maturation may be explained by the delayed planting date, but is also possible that these varieties are too late maturing for Northern New York growing conditions. More trial years are needed for a complete assessment of the potential for organic sunflower production in NNY.

Table 3. 2006 Organic Sunflower Variety Trial
Source	Hybrid/Variety Name	Seed Type	Height
			(cm)
		Trial Mean	189.6
Albert Lea Seeds	Mammoth	Edible seed	284.6
Albert Lea Seeds	Black Oil	Oil seed	156.9
Seeds 2000	6949	Oil seed	166.1
Seeds 2000	Defender HO	Oil seed	150.6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Outreach:
Tabulated trial results will be posted on the Northern New York Agricultural Development Program website www.nnyagdev.org, and included in regional extension publications and meetings.

A workshop on the organic flax production was presented at the NOFA-NY winter conference in Syracuse, NY, January 27, 2007.

Northern NY Agricultural Development Program 2006-2007 Project Report

Project Leaders
Quality Milk Production Services, Cornell University: Ruth N. Zadoks, DVM, and Gary J. Bennett; DVM

Collaborator
Everett D. Thomas, William H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute, Chazy, NY

Cooperating Producers
John Kingston, Maple View Farms, Canton, NY
Vincent Bilow, Bilow Dairy Farm, Malone, NY
Steve Coutier, Dairy Farm Manager, Miner Institute, Chazy, NY

Background
Mastitis is the most common and costly disease of dairy cattle. Losses due to mastitis have been estimated at $200 per cow per year in the USA. The magnitude of losses depends in part on the organism causing mastitis. Judging by producer testimonials and culture results from our diagnostic laboratory, Klebsiella is an increasingly important cause of mastitis in New York. Its economic impact can be devastating because vaccines and antimicrobial treatment have limited impact on severity of mastitis, milk loss, death and culling due to Klebsiella. Prevention is the main control strategy for Klebsiella mastitis.

For many years, sawdust and shavings were considered the most important sources of Klebsiella and use of Klebsiella-free bedding was thought to be adequate for prevention of mastitis. In recent years, however, Klebsiella mastitis has become an issue in herds that use other bedding materials such as recycled manure or even sand bedding. In previous work, we showed that on average 80% of healthy adult dairy cattle shed Klebsiella in their feces during the summer. Fecal contamination of the farm environment, feed, water and animals is common, and it seems likely that exposure to Klebsiella could result from contact with sources other than bedding.

In this project, sources and transmission routes of Klebsiella mastitis on dairy farms were determined, so that critical control points for prevention could be identified. Initially, the presence of Klebsiella in feed and water, manure and bedding was evaluated. Early results suggested that animal hygiene may be an important indicator of the risk of exposure to Klebsiella. In the second half of the project, we specifically measured the association between hygiene scores and the presence of Klebsiella on the animals’ legs and teats.

We also evaluated the potential role of feed crops as source of Klebsiella. This work enabled us to pinpoint sources that harbor disease-causing Klebsiella species and that are critical points in the control of Klebsiella mastitis.

The second goal of this project was to educate dairy producers and farm advisors about sources, transmission and control of Klebsiella mastitis. Using the research results, we produced a fact sheet on Klebsiella mastitis control for distribution to dairy producers, veterinarians and other farm advisors in Northern New York. In addition, information was and will continue to be disseminated through ongoing QMPS education and extension activities, including presentations at the Miner Dairy Days, the National Mastitis Council Meeting, producer meetings, and continuing education meetings for veterinarians and publication in the dairy press.

This project benefits dairy farmers, the dairy industry and dairy cows. Herds that are involved in the project received herd-specific results and management advice. A large audience of dairy farmers, veterinarians and students is reached through direct contact with QMPS staff, through publications in professional and scientific journals and through teaching and continuing education courses. The W. H. Miner Agricultural Research Institute in Chazy, NY, is a partner in the project and will play an active role in dissemination of the results to producers and students.

The dairy industry as a whole and consumers of dairy products benefit from improved understanding of methods to control Klebsiella mastitis because they will contribute to improvement of production efficiency, milk quality, and shelf life of milk. Finally, dairy cows will benefit. Klebsiella mastitis is a painful and often fatal condition that has a strong negative impact on cow health and animal welfare. Every case that we can prevent may be a cow’s life saved.

Methods
In June, July, August and September 2007, feed, water and environmental samples were collected from farms in Clinton, Franklin and St. Lawrence County. This included samples from bedding (unused bedding, used bedding, and spots that were heavily soiled with leaked milk) and from alleyways. At the Miner Institute, samples from soil, corn, alfalfa, rumen content and feces were collected. In the other two counties, lower legs and teat ends of cows were sampled. Per visit, legs of 50 animals and teats of 50 different animals were sampled. Legs were sampled in lactating cow pens, whereas teats were sampled in the milking parlor. Teat ends were swabbed before and after pre-milking udder preparation. The preparation routine included use of teat disinfectants based on peroxide or iodine. Animals that were sampled were also scored for cleanliness.

All samples were tested for presence of Klebsiella using culture media that we developed specifically for Klebsiella detection. The selective culture plates are not perfect, and other bacterial species may grow on them. Isolates that looked like Klebsiella were therefore tested with additional laboratory methods to determine whether they were really Klebsiella. For isolates from crops, soil, rumen content and feces, we used DNA sequencing and DNA fingerprinting to identify bacterial species and bacterial strains within species, respectively. This allowed us to determine which types of samples contain the type of Klebsiella that has the ability to cause mastitis in dairy cows.

RESULTS

Klebsiella in environmental samples
Across herds and samplings, two-thirds of samples from alleyways, feces, and bedding tested positive for Klebsiella. Bedding drenched in milk due was Klebsiella-positive in 75% of cases. Most water samples, except those collected from faucets rather than drinking troughs, were Klebsiella positive, i.e. 83% of samples. Detection of Klebsiella was less common in TMR, which was mostly collected from feed alleys after cows had been eating. Only 30% of TMR samples tested positive. These results show that alleyways and soiled drinking water are important sources of Klebsiella.

Klebsiella on cows’ legs and teats
Klebsiella was very common on legs: on average, 59% of animals tested positive. In Herd 1, animal hygiene scores, environmental hygiene and detection of Klebsiella on legs were similar for August and September (56% vs. 60% of legs). In Herd 2, animal and environmental hygiene were much better in September than August and drastic reduction in the proportion of legs testing positive for Klebsiella was observed (98% vs. 22% for August and September, respectively). Results for teats showed a similar pattern: in Herd 1, 54% of teats tested positive for Klebsiella before udder prep, and 22% tested positive after udder prep, with little difference between months. In Herd 2, all animals had Klebsiella on their teats before udder prep, and 74% of animals still tested positive after udder prep in August. In September, only 34% of animals had Klebsiella on teats before prep, and there was almost no Klebsiella left (6%) after prep. Before udder prep, cows with clean udders were as likely to have Klebsiella on their teats as cows with dirty udders. After udder prep, however, most Klebsiella was removed from clean udders, whereas dirty udders still had Klebsiella on them in many cases. Bacterial isolates from swabs and from clinical mastitis cases were compared. The proportion of K. pneumoniae and K. oxytoca in clinical mastitis cases was farm-specific, and mirrored the proportion of K. pneumoniae and K. oxytoca on teat. This means that Klebsiella on teats is a very likely source of Klebsiella mastitis, that teat hygiene is very important in mastitis prevention, and that pre-dip is not sufficient to eliminate Klebsiella from dirty udder..

Klebsiella in soil, crops and the rumen
Soil was collected in July, August and September. Klebsiella and Klebsiella-like organisms were detected 67% of corn plots and 57% of alfalfa plots that had received manure. Two of 3 alfalfa field plots that had not received manure for 50 years also tested positive. Based on DNA- sequencing, soil harbored four species of Klebsiella and Klebsiella-like organisms: K. oxytoca, K. pneumoniae, K. variicola, and R. planticola. Only the first two species are associated with mastitis. Klebsiella was isolated once from corn roots and once from alfalfa roots, but not from stems or leaves. In contrast, cultures from freshly cut corn, which was sampled just after harvest in September, showed heavy growth of Klebsiella. Of 10 corn varieties tested, 8 were positive for Klebsiella (80%). Most fecal samples (80%) and almost all rumen samples (95%) from cows at the Miner Institute contained Klebsiella. Almost all isolates from the rumen and feces were identified as K. pneumoniae based on DNA-sequencing results (93%), whereas almost all isolates from crops and soil were identified as one of the other species (87%). This implies that soil and crops are not important sources of mastitis-causing Klebsiella. Within many samples, multiple bacterial species could be found, and within a bacterial species, multiple strains could often be found within the sample.

Conclusions/Outcomes/Impacts
For years, wood-based bedding was seen as the most important cause of Klebsiella mastitis. Our earlier work on Klebsiella had shown that the bacteria are also very common in the feces of cows. This finding has been called a “paradigm shift” and raised two important questions: 1) does Klebsiella spread from the feces to the environment, so that the cows’ udders are at risk of Klebsiella mastitis; and 2) does Klebsiella in the gut come from feed crops? The NNY project has enabled us to answer these questions with a resounding “Yes” for question 1, and an almost as resounding “No” for question 2.

Farm soil and crops contain organisms that are closely related to Klebsiella, but rarely the type of Klebsiella that causes mastitis. Klebsiella-free crops or soils will not solve Klebsiella mastitis problems. The main source of Klebsiella in the cows’ rumen and gut is the constant intake with feed and, more importantly, drinking water that are contaminated with manure. Manure also contaminates bedding. Most used bedding contains Klebsiella, even if the bedding was originally Klebsiella-free. The real solution to Klebsiella mastitis lies in hygiene, particularly hygiene of alleys and holding pens. Most alleys and holding pens contain manure and Klebsiella. As cows walk around, manure gets onto their legs. It may also splash onto their udders. When cows lie down, Klebsiella may be transferred “from feet to teat”. Klebsiella on cows’ teats is only partially removed by pre-milking udder preparation, even when teat disinfectants are used. This means that cows are at risk of new Klebsiella infections in the barn as well as in the milking parlor.

Klebsiella mastitis is difficult or impossible to control with vaccination, antibiotic treatment or use of sand bedding alone. Cows contaminate their environment with Klebsiella, putting themselves at risk of mastitis. By keeping the cows and their environment clean, the risk of Klebsiella mastitis can be reduced. Hygiene of pens and alleyway is a critical control point in prevention of Klebsiella mastitis.

Outreach
1. Klebsiella Mastitis. Presentation at Miner Dairy Days by G. Bennet, November 2007.

2. Klebsiella Mastitis Prevention and Control – QMPS tri-fold for dairy producers, distributed in Northern New York through QMPS, CCE offices and veterinarians.

3. See list of reports and articles (will be made available on-line once published)

4. Press release by Kara Dunn, NNY ADP

5. QMPS veterinarians and technicians disseminate results through their on-farm consulting activities, and their education and extension activities for dairy producers, dairy veterinarians, and students of animal and veterinary science.

Next steps
Prevention is the most important component of mastitis control programs. The 2007 funding from the Northern New York Agricultural Development Program has enabled us to identify critical control points in prevention of Klebsiella mastitis (most importantly: pen, alley and animal hygiene). Despite producers’ best efforts to prevent mastitis, some cases will occur. In those cases, producers will try to save the cow through treatment. For some mastitis pathogens, it is known that specific characteristics of the cow and the bacteria affect chances of cure. This knowledge enables producers to select candidates for treatment as opposed to culling, and to choose an appropriate treatment duration. Knowledge of such risk factors is not available for Klebsiella or for its cousin, E. coli. The next step would therefore be to evaluate characteristiscs of cows and Klebsiella and E. coli strains that affect the chance of cure. Ideally, this is done in the context of a treatment trial. QMPS will conduct a coliform mastitis treatment trial in 2008, which provides a unique opportunity to evaluate factors affecting cure on New York dairies.

Acknowledgments
The project was sponsored by the Northern New York Agricultural Development Program, and by Quality Milk Production Services, a program within the Animal Health Diagnostic Center, which is a partnership between the NYS Department of Agriculture and Markets and the College of Veterinary Medicine at Cornell University. Research on Klebsiella mastitis in New York also receives funding from the Multi-State Mastitis Research Project USDA CSREES NE-1028 (formerly NE-1009), and from the Collaborative Research in Preclinical and Clinical Sciences Program through the College of Veterinary Medicine at Cornell University.

Reports and/or articles in which the results of this project have already been published.

1. Klebsiella mastitis – beyond bedding. Northeast Dairy Business, January 2008.

2. Klebsiella – Not By Bedding Alone. R. Zadoks, M. Munoz, H. Griffiths, G. Bennett and Y. Schukken. NMC 47th Annual Meeting Proceedings, January 2008.

3. Klebsiella In Feces Of Dairy Cattle – Where Does It Come From? R. Zadoks, H. Griffiths, M. Munoz, G. Bennett, E. Thomas, and Y. Schukken. NMC 47th Annual Meeting Proceedings, January 2008.

4. Klebsiella – From Feet to Teat. Submitted to Hoard’s Dairyman.

5. Cleanliness Scores as Indicator of Klebsiella Exposure in Dairy Cows. M. A. Munoz, G. J. Bennett, C. Ahlström, H. M. Griffiths, Y. H. Schukken and R. N. Zadoks. Manuscript in preparation for Journal of Dairy Science.

6. Comparison of Klebsiella and Raoultella isolates from dairy farm soil, crops and animals. H. M. Griffiths, E. D. Thomas, M. A. Munoz, C. Ahlström, G. J. Bennett, and R. N. Zadoks. Short communication in preparation for Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

For More Information
Quality Milk Production Services, Cornell University, Ithaca NY : Ruth N. Zadoks, DVM, PhD, Senior Research Associate, 607-255-8202, rz26@cornell.edu

Quality Milk Production Services, Cornell University Veterinary Science Building, Canton NY: Gary J. Bennett, DVM, Senior Extension Veterinarian, 315-379-3930, gjb9@cornell.edu